The projection of sea-based ground forces onto land. Amphibious
warfare was more widely conducted in World War II than in any
previous conflict and on a greater scale than ever before or
since.
Involving all aspects of naval and military operations— from
mine warfare to air and ground combat—amphibious operations are the
most complex and risky of all military endeavors. The basic
principles had been established in World War I and the postwar
period, but the lessons were largely ignored by most military
leaders except those in the Soviet Union, the U.S. Marine Corps
(USMC), and Germany’s Landungspionieren (Landing Pioneers). The
Royal Navy concluded that the British Gallipoli operation had
demonstrated a successful amphibious assault was impossible in
modern war.
Soviet landings and most Allied commando raids were
tactical-level operations against limited objectives, although some
had a strategic impact (capturing German codes, radars, and so
on).
Amphibious operations also fall into four types: raids,
assaults, evacuations, and administrative (noncombat) landings. The
first of these is the most dangerous since it generally occurs in
an area of enemy superiority and involves elements of both an
assault and an evacuation. An administrative landing is the safest,
being conducted in a benign environment with no enemy ground, air,
or naval forces present. Assaults and evacuations face varying
levels of risk, depending on the defender’s strength and
support.
The phases of amphibious operations evolved as the war
progressed. In 1939 the German army was the only service to
recognize the need to rehearse landings and procedures for a
specific landing. By 1943, every major military leader realized the
necessity to practice for a specific landing. Then, as today,
amphibious operations were broken down into five phases: (1)
planning, (2) embarkation, (3) rehearsal, (4) movement to the
objective area, and (5) the assault. Soviet doctrine added a sixth
phase, the landing of the follow-on army forces.
The Soviet Union had a specialized amphibious force of naval
infantry at war’s start, but they lacked equipment and training.
They were expected to land on the beach using ships’ boats or other
improvised transport. Soviet doctrine called for naval infantry to
conduct amphibious raids and support the army’s landing by seizing
and holding the beachhead while conventional forces disembarked
behind them. Although this approach economized on the number of
troops requiring specialized amphibious assault training, it proved
costly in combat, as any delays in the follow-on landing left the
naval infantry dangerously exposed to counterattack. As a result,
Soviet naval infantry suffered heavy casualties in their amphibious
assaults but one can argue they led the Allied way in these
operations. On 23 September 1941, the Soviet Black Sea Fleet
conducted the Allies’ first amphibious assault, when Captain Sergei
Gorshkov landed a naval infantry regiment against the coastal
flanks of the Romanian army besieging Odessa. The action eliminated
the Romanian threat to the city’s harbor. In fact, amphibious raids
and assaults figured prominently in Soviet naval operations along
Germany’s Black and Arctic Sea flanks, with the Soviets conducting
more than 150 amphibious raids and assaults during the war.
amphibious operations were critical to the Allied war effort.
They enabled the Soviets to threaten the Axis powers’ extreme
flanks throughout the Eastern Campaign. Thus the Soviets were able
to divert Axis forces away from the front and facilitate Soviet
offensive efforts in the war’s final two years.
References Achkasov, V. I., and N. B. Pavlovich. Soviet Naval
Operations in the Great Patriotic War. Annapolis, MD: Naval
Institute Press, 1981. Ruge, Friedrich. The Soviets as Naval
Opponents, 1941–1945. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press,
1979.
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